PAME Work Plan

A global ocean circulation model is coupled to a Lagrangian particle tracking model to simulate 30 years of input, transport and accumulation of floating debris in the world ocean. Using both terrestrial and mar- itime inputs, the modelling results clearly show the formation of five accumulation zones in the subtrop- ical latitudes of the major ocean basins. The relative size and concentration of each clearly illustrate the dominance of the accumulation zones in the northern hemisphere, while smaller seas surrounded by densely populated areas are also shown to have a high concentration of floating debris. We also deter- mine the relative contribution of different source regions to the total amount of material in a particular accumulation zone. This study provides a framework for describing the transport, distribution and accu- mulation of floating marine debris and can be continuously updated and adapted to assess scenarios reflecting changes in the production and disposal of plastic worldwide.

Harbour seals in Svalbard have short longevity, despite being protected from human hunting and having limited terrestrial predation at their haulout sites, low contaminant burdens and no fishery by-catch issues. This led us to explore the diet of Greenland sharks (Somniosus microcephalus) in this region as a potential seal predator. We examined gastrointestinal tracts (GITs) from 45 Greenland sharks in this study. These sharks ranged from 229 to 381 cm in fork length and 136–700 kg in body mass; all were sexually immature. Seal and whale tissues were found in 36.4 and 18.2%, respectively, of the GITs that had contents (n = 33). Based on genetic analyses, the dominant seal prey species was the ringed seal (Pusa hispida); bearded seal (Erignathus barbatus) and hooded seal (Cystophora cristata) tissues were each found in a single shark. The sharks had eaten ringed seal pups and adults based on the presence of lanugo-covered prey (pups) and age determinations based on growth rings on claws (B1 year and adults). All of the whale tissue was from minke whale (Balenoptera acutorostrata) offal, from ani- mals that had been harvested in the whale fishery near Svalbard. Fish dominated the sharks’ diet, with Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua), Atlantic wolffish (Anarhichas lupus) and haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) being the most important fish species. Circumstantial evidence suggests that these sharks actively prey on seals and fishes, in addition to eating carrion such as the whale tissue. Our study suggests that Greenland sharks may play a significant predatory role in Arctic food webs.

This report describes the results of a two year project called “Microlitter in sewage treatment systems – A Nordic perspective on waste water treatment plants as pathways for microscopic anthropogenic particles to marine systems” funded by the Marine Group (HAV) under the Nordic Council of Ministers in 2014–2015.

The aim of the project was to investigate the significance of effluent water from sewage treatment plants (STPs) as gateway for microliter and other microscopic anthropogenic particles (MAPs) to the marine and aquatic environment. Further, to investigate the occurrence of these par- ticles both in the biotic and abiotic compartment of the receptor. STPs from Sweden, Finland and Iceland with different sewage treatment meth- ods were included in the study. Different SPT treatments were chosen to investigate the importance of sewage treatments on microparticle reten- tion in STPs. The report describes the methods used, results from the STP investigation and the amount of particles found in seawater, sediment and marine organisms in the receptor. Further, the report suggests a harmo- nized definition on particle shape for analyses which is beneficial for the international scientific community in order to facilitate comparison be- tween studies.

This study presents sampling and analysis of sediments for microplastics. The sampling area covers large scale geographical areas on the Norwegian Continental Shelf (NCS). The samples have been collected as an extra task during the regional offshore sediment monitoring on the NCS on behalf of the Oil & Gas industry. This study had therefore not been initiated without the good will from Oil & Gas operators, especially Statoil and ConocoPhillips Norway, which allowed use of some additional time during field work to take these samples.

The Norwegian Environment Agency saw this as a good opportunity to acquire knowledge of microplastic abundances from the NCS and therefore funded the project.

The Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI) has put in own effort, assisted through the Skattefunn system (Project 266408), the projects FANTOM (RCN, 231736/F20) and JPI Oceans WEATHER-MIC (RCN, Project Grant 257433/E40), for the development of the analytical protocols and execution of the analysis and reporting. Through a relatively short period they have managed to deliver all results. A special thanks to Prof. Hans Peter Arp, Heidi Knutsen, Emma Jane Wade and Arne Petersen for the cooperation and all the work they have put in. Also, a special thanks to Øyvind Lilleeng at NMBU (Norwegian University of Life Sciences) whose substantial contribution to this report was done in partial fulfilment of the Masters Project tentatively entitled “The presence of microplastics on the Norwegian Continental shelf and coast of Havana”.

Entanglement in fishing gear is recognized as a potentially significant source of serious injury and mortality for humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in some parts of their range. In recent years, the number of humpback whales reported to have been entangled in Alaska has increased. In 2003–04 we quantified the prevalence of non-lethal entanglements of humpback whales in northern Southeast Alaska (SEAK) with the ultimate goal of informing management discussions of the entanglement issue for the Central North Pacific stock of humpback whales.

This chapter aims to provide an overview of research into quantifying the economic impacts of marine litter. From an environmental economics perspec- tive it introduces the difficulties in measuring the economic costs of marine litter; reviews those sectors where these costs are notable; and considers policy instru- ments, which can reduce these costs. Marine litter is underpinned by dynamic and complex processes, the drivers and impacts of which are multi-scalar, trans- boundary, and play out in both marine and terrestrial environments. These impacts include economic costs to expenditure, welfare and lost revenue. In most cases, these are not borne by the producers or the polluters. In industries such as fisher- ies and tourism the costs of marine litter are beginning to be quantified and are considerable. In other areas such as impacts on human health, or more intangible costs related to reduced ecosystem services, more research is evidently needed. As the costs of marine litter are most often used to cover removing debris or recov- ering from the damage which they have caused, this expenditure represents treat- ment rather than cure, and although probably cheaper than inaction do not present a strategy for cost reduction. Economic instruments, such as taxes and charges addressing the drivers of waste, for instance those being developed for plastic bags, could be used to reduce the production of marine litter and minimise its impacts. In any case, there remain big gaps in our understanding of the harm caused by marine litter, which presents difficulties when attempting to both quantify its economic costs, and develop effective and efficient instruments to reduce them.

Greenland sharks are widely distributed and most likely a highly abundant predator in arctic waters. Greenland sharks have previously been considered scav- engers, but recent studies suggest that Greenland sharks also predate on live prey. In this study, distribution and feeding ecology in Greenland waters were investigated. Based on data from 25 years of surveys, Greenland sharks were usually caught at 400–700 m but were found at all depths between 100 and 1,200 m. Based on examination of stomachs from 30 Greenland sharks (total length of 258–460 cm), the most important prey items were Atlantic cod (65.6 % IRI), harp seal (9.9 % IRI), skates (5.2 % IRI) and wolffish (4.4 % IRI), but large geographical variations were observed. Prey composition and qualitative observa- tions support the hypothesis of active predation. Consistent with other studies, the results of this work support the notion that the Greenland shark is an apex predator with the potential to influence trophic dynamics in the Arctic.

The reduction of pollution of the marine environment with litter is one of the significant environmental challenges facing society today.

Measures to reduce the input of marine litter and measures to remove litter from the marine environment are presently being implemented through activities at the OSPAR level (OSPAR Regional Action Plan) and on a national scale via the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD). To measure the effectiveness of these activities in reducing marine litter pollution and to assess if a Good Environmental Status (GES) is being achieved, indicators have been developed. One of these indicators is the amount of marine litter washed ashore and/or deposited on coastlines, referred to as beach litter. The indicator reflects changes in inputs of litter to the marine environment and is an indicator of the type and magnitude of litter pollution on the coastline and in adjacent marine waters.

The purpose of this document is to provide guidelines for a monitoring and assessment programme that allows effective detection of spatial differences and temporal changes in the litter encountered on beach litter monitoring sites. This litter can originate from the sea, through deliberate or accidental losses from vessels (including cargos and waste), and be transported to and deposited on the coast from the sea by winds and water currents. It can also be directly deposited on the coast by humans, e.g. tourists, fishermen, fly-tipping. Litter can also be deposited further inland on riverbanks, directly into rivers, on streets and in the countryside and consequently be transported by rivers and wind into the marine environment. In addition, sewage works may discharge litter items directly or indirectly, via rivers and sewage outlets into the sea. Marine litter (marine debris) is thus any persistent, manufactured or processed solid material discarded, disposed of, abandoned or lost in the marine and coastal environment.

Marine litter floats, sinks or gets cast on beaches. It is estimated that a large amount of the litter eventually sinks to the sea floor. Benthic or seafloor marine litter consists of similar items as those found on beaches and is dominated by plastic. Benthic marine litter data can be generated based on trawling surveys. Comparable classification methods as those applied to beach litter can be used to categorise and count litter items from the seafloor. This seafloor litter data can be used to assess types and trends in the distribution of seafloor litter. The following document will firstly introduce how to monitor marine litter during fisheries surveys and secondly present how this data can be evaluated.

This background document reports on the development of an ecological quality objective (EcoQO) for plastic particles in stomachs of seabirds. This work responds to the agreement at the 5th North Sea Conference in 2002 that an EcoQO should be developed and applied in the framework of OSPAR for the ecological quality element on plastic particles in seabird stomachs.

The occurrence of plastics (and other man-made types of litter) in the marine environment is due solely to human activity and can therefore be controlled by human management. Marine litter, especially plastics, causes ecological damage to a wide range of marine organisms, including at least marine mammals, birds, turtles and fish as a result of the entanglement with, or ingestion of, plastic. The Northern Fulmar is a particularly convenient species to measure plastic pollution by stomach content analysis. Like the whole group of 'tubenosed' seabirds (the albatrosses and petrels), it frequently ingests plastic litter. The Fulmar is particularly abundant in the North Sea, forages exclusively at sea (unlike e.g. gulls), retains slowly digesting materials in the stomach, and thereby 'integrates' litter pollution levels encountered at sea. Sources of plastic litter in the North Sea area are: i) ship's garbage and operational or cargo-related wastes; ii) lost and discarded fisheries materials from vessels and mariculture; iii) land-based wastes from coastal or riverine disposal; and iv) recreational littering.

In 2005, following an initial phase of work in collaboration with ICES, the OSPAR report on the North Sea Pilot Project concluded on the formulation for an EcoQO based upon the number of plastic particles found in the stomachs of fulmars. However, at the same time, OSPAR noted the recommendation from the Save the North Sea Project Fulmar Study for a formulation based upon the weight of plastic particles found. OSPAR asked ICES to consider these recommendations further. This background document has been prepared by Dr J. A Franker of Wageningen-IMARES under contract to the Netherlands Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, taking into account the advice prepared by ICES. The document proposes and evaluates the background for the following formulation for the EcoQO:

There should be less than 10% of northern fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis) having more than 0.1 g plastic particles in the stomach in samples of 50 to 100 beach-washed fulmars found in winter (November to April) from each of 4 to 5 areas of the North Sea over a period of at least five years

The document includes an evaluation of current and historic levels in relation to the EcoQO together with proposals for potential management measures to reach the EcoQO and an estimation of the potential costs of monitoring in relation to the EcoQO.

The quantity of debris, in particular of plastics, ingested by marine organisms reflects the abundance of marine litter, the associated harm to wildlife and the marine ecosystem, and socio-economic harm. OSPAR has agreed to implement the monitoring of plastics in stomachs of seabirds (EcoQO 3.3) as a common indicator in the North Sea (OSPAR 2009, 2010a,b; 2014a,b). This has been implemented through long term monitoring of plastic abundance in stomach contents of a common seabird in the North Sea, the Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis), with methods and results published in regular reports (see references Van Franeker in Chpt5) and peer reviewed scientific literature (Van Franeker et al. 2011; Van Franeker & Law 2015). The Fulmar EcoQO methodology is also being used elsewhere in the North Atlantic and North Pacific areas (e.g. Provencher et al. 2009; Avery-Gomm et al. 2012; Kühn & Van Franeker 2012; Bond et al. 2014; Trevail et al., 2015) allowing wide spatial comparisons of environmental quality in European waters. The OSPAR EcoQO for the fulmar has been adopted in the European Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) in Descriptor 10 Indicator 2, which is suitable for implementation in the Greater North Sea, Arctic Waters, and Celtic Seas, and has been taken as example for other biota indicators for marine litter in other MSFD areas where no fulmars occur.

The purpose of this document is to provide guidelines for a monitoring and assessment program that allows efficient detection of spatial differences and temporal changes in marine plastic debris floating at the sea surface using fulmar stomach contents as an indicator.

The pollution of the marine environment with plastic (macro) litter and microplastic particles, is regarded as a major global environmental problem. Plastic material is a valuable material in our society and is used in a diverse range of applications, both short and long term, before potentially becoming waste. Loss of plastics to the environment may occur at any stage of the life cycle.

Global plastic production has increased from 50 million tons in 1976 to 315 million tons in 2015, leading to large quantities of mismanaged plastic waste, litter and broken down particles entering the marine environment. In this report, source emissions and potential impacts of microplastics in the OSPAR Maritime Area are described to facilitate prioritization of further actions to mitigate microplastic emissions to the environment. The sources were selected at an international stakeholder conference held by OSPAR in December 2015 in Rotterdam. This report is based on existing literature. It was agreed by the OSPAR Intersessional Correspondence Group on Marine Litter (ICG ML) that recommendations with respect to reduction targets, research needs, and mitigation measures, were outside of the scope of this report.